Everything about Prime Minister totally explained
A
prime minister is the most senior minister of
cabinet in the
executive branch of
government in a
parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a
politician. In many systems the Prime Minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the Government. In most systems they're the presiding member and
chairperson of the cabinet. In a minority of systems, notably in
semi-presidential system of government, a prime minister is the official who is appointed to manage the
civil service and execute the directives of the
President.
In parliamentary systems fashioned after the
Westminster system, the prime minister is the presiding and actual
head of the government and head of the executive branch. In such systems, the
head of state or the head of state's official representative (the King, Queen, President, or Governor-General), although officially the head of the executive branch, in fact holds a ceremonial position. The Prime Minister is often, but not always, a
member of parliament and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the
legislature. In some
monarchies the monarch may also exercise executive powers (known as the
Royal Prerogative) which are constitutionally vested in the Crown and can be exercised without the approval of parliament.
As well as being Head of Government, a prime minister may have other roles or titles — the
Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, for example, is also
First Lord of the Treasury and
Minister for the Civil Service. Prime ministers may take other ministerial posts — for example during the
Second World War Winston Churchill was also
Minister of Defence (although there was then no
Ministry of Defence). Former Australian prime minister
Gough Whitlam was famous for forming his cabinet entirely of himself and his deputy as soon as the overall result was beyond doubt at the
1972 federal election (see
First Whitlam Ministry).
Primus inter pares
Historically, prime ministers are often referred to as
Primus inter pares, a
Latin term translated as
first among equals, and which reflects the original concept of a prime minister as merely the first minister or most senior minister to the monarch, not the dominant or presiding minister, a role later assumed by many prime ministers in many states.
The position of "
Grand Pensionary" (Dutch:
raad(s)pensionaris), in the 16th and 18th century
United Provinces, was in many ways similar to that of a modern Prime Minister.
History
While the modern office of Prime Minister was developed in the UK the first actual usage of the word Prime Minister or Premier Ministre was used by
Cardinal Richelieu, when, in 1624 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France.
Louis XIV and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers.
The term Prime Minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the
United Kingdom. Since medieval times Kings of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were
Thomas Cromwell under
Henry VIII;
William Cecil, Lord Burghley under
Elizabeth I;
Clarendon under
Charles II and
Godolphin under
Queen Anne. These ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as "the Minister," the "first Minister" and finally the "Prime Minister."
The power of these ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the Monarch. Although managing the Parliament was among the necessary skills of holding high office, they didn't depend on a parliamentary majority for their power. Although there was a
Cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the Monarch, and the Monarch usually presided over its meetings. When the Monarch grew tired of a first minister, they could be dismissed, or worse: Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister becoming too powerful. Late in Anne's reign, for example, the
Tory ministers
Harley and
St John shared power.
In the mid 17th century, after the
English Civil War and the
Protectorate, Parliament had strengthened its position and it emerged even more powerful after the
Glorious Revolution of 1688. The King couldn't establish any law or impose any tax without its permission.
Thus it has been said that the House of Commons became a part of the government and it has been only a further step of this development that a new kind of prime minister should emerge. This turning point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714 and the accession of
George I. George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in
Hanover, and had neither knowledge of nor interest in the details of English government. In these circumstances it was inevitable that the King's first minister would become the
de facto head of the government. From 1721 this was the
Whig politician
Robert Walpole, who held office for twenty-one years. Walpole chaired Cabinet meetings, appointed all the other ministers, dispensed the royal patronage and packed the
House of Commons with his supporters. Under Walpole, the doctrine of Cabinet solidarity developed. Walpole required that no minister other than him have private dealings with the King, and also that when the Cabinet had agreed on a policy, all ministers must defend it in public or resign. As a later Prime Minister,
Lord Melbourne, said: "It matters not what we say, gentlemen, so long as we all say the same thing."
Walpole always denied that he was "Prime Minister," and throughout the 18th century parliamentarians and legal scholars continued to deny that any such position was known to the Constitution. The title was first referred to on Government documents during the administration of
Benjamin Disraeli but didn't appear in the formal British
Order of precedence until 1905.
George II and
George III made strenuous efforts to reclaim the personal power of the Monarch, but the increasing complexity and expense of government meant that a minister who could command the loyalty of the Commons was increasingly necessary. The long tenure of the wartime Prime Minister
Pitt the Younger (1783-1801), combined with the mental illness of George III, consolidated the power of the post.
The prestige of British institutions in the 19th century and the growth of the
British Empire saw the British model of cabinet government, headed by a prime minister, widely copied, both in other European countries and in British colonial territories as they developed self-government. In some places alternative titles such as "Premier," "Chief Minister," "First Minister of State", "President of the Council" or "Chancellor" were adopted, but the essentials of the office were the same. By the late 20th century the majority of the world's countries had a "Prime Minister" or equivalent minister, holding office under either a
constitutional monarchy or a ceremonial president. The main exceptions to this system have been the
United States and the presidential republics in Latin America, modelled on the U.S. system, in which the president directly exercises executive authority.
Prime ministers in republics and in monarchies
The post of prime minister may be encountered both in constitutional
monarchies (such as
Belgium,
Denmark,
Japan,
The Netherlands,
Norway,
Malaysia,
Spain,
Sweden,
Canada,
Australia,
New Zealand, and the
United Kingdom), and in
republics in which the head of state is an elected (such as
Finland,
France,
Germany,
India,
Ireland,
Portugal,
Bulgaria,
Romania,
Serbia,
Turkey) or unelected official (such as
Singapore before 1993) with varying degrees of real power. This contrasts with the
presidential system, in which the
President (or equivalent) is both the head of state and the head of the government. See also "
First Minister", "
Premier", "
Chief Minister", "
Chancellor", "
Taoiseach" and "
Secretary of state": alternative titles usually equivalent in meaning to, or translated as, "prime minister."
In some
presidential or
semi-presidential systems, such as those of
France,
Russia or
South Korea, the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the President but usually approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out the directives of the President and managing the civil service. (The premier of the
Republic of China is also appointed by the president, but requires no approval by the legislature. Appointment of the prime minister of France requires no approval by the parliament either, but the parliament can force the resignation of the government.) In these systems, it's possible for the president and the prime minister to be from different political parties if the legislature is controlled by a party different from that of the president. When it arises, such a state of affairs is usually referred to as (political)
cohabitation.
Entry into office
In parliamentary systems a prime minister can enter into office by several means.
- By appointment by the Head of State, without reference to parliament: While in practice most Prime Ministers under the Westminster system (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Malaysia, India and the United Kingdom) are the leaders of the largest party in parliament, technically the appointment of the Prime Minister is a royal prerogative exercised by the Queen or the Governor-General. No parliamentary vote takes place on who is forming a government. However as the government will have to outline its legislative programme to parliament in the Speech from the Throne, the speech is sometimes used to test parliamentary support. A defeat on the Speech is taken to mean a Loss of Confidence and so requires either a new draft (a humiliating act no government would contemplate), resignation, or a request for a dissolution of parliament. Until the early 20th century governments when defeated in a general election remained in power until their Speech from the Throne was defeated and then resigned. No government has done so for one hundred years, though Edward Heath in 1974 did delay his resignation while he explored whether he could form a government with Liberal support.
» In such systems unwritten (and unenforceable) constitutional conventions often outline the order in which people are asked to form a government. If the Prime Minister resigns after a general election, the monarch usually asks the Leader of the Opposition to form a government. Where however a resignation occurs during a parliament (unless the government has itself collapsed) the monarch will ask another member of the government to form a government. While previously the monarch had some leeway in whom to ask, all British political parties now elect their leaders (until 1965 the
Conservatives chose their leader by informal consultation). The last time the monarch had a choice over the appointment occurred in 1963 when the
Earl of Home was asked to become Prime Minister ahead of
Rab Butler.
Appointment by the head of state after parliament nominates a candidate: Example: The Republic of Ireland where the President of Ireland appoints the Taoiseach on the nomination of the Dáil Éireann.
The head of state nominates a candidate for prime minister who is then submitted to parliament for approval before appointment as prime minister: Example: Spain, where the King sends a nomination to parliament for approval. Also Germany where under the Basic Law (constitution) the Bundestag votes on a candidate nominated by the Federal President. In these cases, parliament can choose another candidate who then would be appointed by the head of state.
The head of state appoints a prime minister who has a set timescale within which s/he must gain a vote of confidence: (Example: Italy, Romania)
Direct election by parliament: (Example: Japan, The Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and the Australian Capital Territory.)
Direct election by the public (Example: Israel, 1996-2001, where the prime minister was elected in a general election, with no regard to political affiliation.)
Nomination by a state office holder other than the head of state or his/her representative: (Example: Under the modern Swedish Instrument of Government, the power to appoint someone to form a government has been moved from the Monarch to the Speaker of Parliament and the parliament itself. The speaker nominate a candidate, who is then elected to prime minister (statsminister) by the parliament if an absolute majority of the members of parliament doesn't vote no (for example he can be elected even if more MP:s vote no than yes).
Note that though most prime ministers are 'appointed', they're often inaccurately described as 'elected'.
Prime ministers and constitutions
The position, power and status of prime ministers differ depending on the age of the constitution in individuals.
Australia's Constitution makes no mention of a Prime minister of Australia.
Canada's Constitution, being a 'mixed' or hybrid constitution (a constitution that's partly formally codified and partly uncodified) originally didn't make any reference whatsoever to a Prime Minister, with his specific duties and method of appointment instead dictated by "convention." In the Constitution Act, 1982, passing reference to a "Prime Minister of Canada" is added, though only regarding the composition of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers.
Germany's Basic Law (1949) lists the powers, functions and duties of the federal Chancellor.
India's Constitution of India (1950) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister.
Japan's Constitution of Japan (1946) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister.
Malta's Constitution (1964) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Malta.
The Republic of Ireland's constitution, Bunreacht na hÉireann (1937), provides for the office of Taoiseach in detail, listing powers, functions and duties.
The United Kingdom's Constitution, being uncodified and largely unwritten, makes no mention of a Prime Minister. Though it had de facto existed for centuries, its first mention in official state documents didn't occur until the first decade of the twentieth century. Accordingly, it's often said "not to exist", indeed there are several instances of parliament declaring this to be the case. The prime minister sits in the cabinet solely by virtue of occupying another office, either First Lord of the Treasury (office in commission), or more rarely Chancellor of the Exchequer (the last being Balfour in 1905).
Exit from office
Contrary to popular and journalistic belief, most prime ministers in parliamentary systems are not appointed for a specific term in office and in effect may remain in power through a number of elections and parliaments. For example, Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion, in 1979. She remained continuously in power until 1990, though she used the assembly of each House of Commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet. Some states, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office on the parliament. Hence the Irish Taoiseach is formally 'renominated' after every general election. (Some constitutional experts have questioned whether this process is actually in keeping with the provisions of the Irish constitution, which appear to suggest a taoiseach should remain in office, without the requirement of a renomination, unless s/he has clearly lost the general election.) The position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.
In parliamentary systems, governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament (though a small minority of parliaments, by giving a right to block Supply to upper houses, in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses, though in reality upper houses, even when they've the power, rarely exercise it). Where they lose a vote of confidence, have a motion of no confidence passed against them, or where they lose Supply, most constitutional systems require either:
a) a letter of resignation or
b) a request of a parliamentary dissolution.
The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the opposition of parliament to the electorate. However in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government. In most modern parliamentary systems, the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution. Older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet. (In the United Kingdom, for example, the tradition whereby it's the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918. Prior to then, it was the entire government that made the request. Similarly, though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request, the earlier 1922 Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the Executive Council (the then name for the Irish cabinet).
Titles
A number of different terms are used to describe prime ministers. In Germany and Austria the prime minister is actually titled Federal Chancellor while the Irish prime minister is called (which is rendered into English as Prime Minister). In many cases, though commonly used, "prime minister" isn't the official title of the office-holder; the Spanish prime minister is the President of the Government and the British First Lord of the Treasury. Other common forms include President of the Council of Ministers (for example in Italy, ), President of the Executive Council, or Minister-President. In the Scandinavian countries is the prime minister called statsminister in the native languages (for example state minister). In federations, the head of government of subnational entities like states or provinces is most commonly known as the Premier, Chief Minister or Minister-president.
In non-Commonwealth countries the prime minister may be entitled to the style of Excellency like a president. In some Commonwealth countries Prime Ministers and former Prime Ministers are styled Right Honourable, for example, the Right Honourable Sir John Major.
In the UK where devolved government is in place, the leaders of the Scottish, Northern Ireland and Welsh Governments are styled First Minister.
Chairman or Chief?
Irish political scientist Professor Brian Farrell coined the term "Chairman or Chief" to describe the two alternative concepts of prime ministerial leadership, in his book of the same name about the office of Taoiseach. The term, widely used in political science worldwide, draws a distinction between a head of government who is merely a facilitator and co-ordinator of a cabinet (the "chairman"), and those who lead it forcefully from the front, setting its policy agenda and requiring all ministers to follow the leader's policies (the "chief").
Examples of "chairmen" have included Bertie Ahern (Ireland), John Major (United Kingdom) and Couve de Murville (France), while examples of chiefs included Indira Gandhi and Atal Bihari Vajpayee,Seán Lemass (Ireland), Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair (United Kingdom), and Jacques Chirac when prime minister under cohabitation.
Not every prime minister fits exclusively into either category: Éamon de Valera, though a strong personality, was only interested in controlling some of his government's agenda (usually constitutional matters and Anglo-Irish affairs), and allowed large areas to decided by his colleagues. Though superficially a chief (and called "the Chief" [theliteral translation of Taoiseach] by his colleagues) historians see him as more of a chairman, particularly in later governments. Winston Churchill too, though superficially a "chief", was more chairmanlike in later governments and in those areas in which he'd little personal interest.
As well as describing office holders, individual offices could be described as belonging to one or other category. Among the more dominant prime ministerial offices in terms of powers, and so more chieflike, are the premierships of Ireland and Spain, where premiers can hire and fire at will. In contrast, offices such as President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State, Prime Minister of the Third French Republic, and the premierships of Belgium and The Netherlands are more chairmanlike in format. Lijphart referred to the premiership of the Netherlands as "primus inter pares without due emphasis on primus".
Description of the role
Wilfried Martens, who served as Prime Minister of Belgium, described his role as follows:
» First of all [thePrime Minister] must listen a lot, and when deep disagreements occur, he must suggest a solution to the matter. This can be done in different ways. Sometimes during the discussion, I note the elements of the problem and think of a proposal I can formulate to the Council (cabinet), the Secretary taking notes. The Ministers then insist on changing commas and full stops. The Prime Minister can also make a proposal which leaves enough room for amendments in order to keep the current discussion on the right tracks. When a solution must be found in order to reach a consensus, he can force one or two Ministers to join or resign.
Lists of prime ministers
The following table groups the list of past and present prime ministers and details information available in those lists.
Footnotes
Further Information
Get more info on 'Prime Minister'.
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